The Cognitive Biases - The 4 Freedoms Library2024-03-29T06:30:21Zhttp://4freedoms.com/forum/topics/the-cognitive-biases?groupUrl=argumentation&feed=yes&xn_auth=noMemory errors and biases[edit…tag:4freedoms.com,2018-12-03:3766518:Comment:1990062018-12-03T07:39:55.653ZAlan Lakehttp://4freedoms.com/profile/AlanLake
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Memory_errors_and_biases">Memory errors and biases</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Memory errors and biases">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article:<span> …</span></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Memory_errors_and_biases">Memory errors and biases</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Memory errors and biases">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article:<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" title="List of memory biases">List of memory biases</a></div>
<p>In<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a><span> </span><i>and</i><span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, a memory bias is a<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a><span> </span>that either enhances or impairs the recall of a<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a><span> </span>(either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory bias, including:</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr><th scope="col">Name</th>
<th scope="col">Description</th>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizarreness_effect" title="Bizarreness effect">Bizarreness effect</a></td>
<td>Bizarre material is better remembered than common material.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive bias</a></td>
<td>In a self-justifying manner retroactively ascribing one's choices to be more informed than they were when they were made.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Change_bias">Change bias</span></td>
<td>After an investment of effort in producing change, remembering one's past performance as more difficult than it actually was.<sup id="cite_ref-schacter_105-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-schacter-105">[105]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (October 2013)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">Childhood amnesia</a></td>
<td>The retention of few memories from before the age of four.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Conservatism">Conservatism</span><span> </span>or Regressive bias</td>
<td>Tendency to remember high values and high likelihoods/probabilities/frequencies as lower than they actually were and low ones as higher than they actually were. Based on the evidence, memories are not extreme enough.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_85-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-ReferenceA-85">[85]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Experimental_Psychology_1523_86-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Experimental_Psychology_1523-86">[86]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Consistency_bias">Consistency bias</span></td>
<td>Incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cue-dependent_forgetting" title="Cue-dependent forgetting">Context effect</a></td>
<td>That cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa).</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-race_effect" title="Cross-race effect">Cross-race effect</a></td>
<td>The tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identifying members of a race other than their own.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></td>
<td>A form of<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory"><i>misattribution</i></a><span> </span>where a memory is mistaken for imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.<sup id="cite_ref-schacter_105-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-schacter-105">[105]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric bias</a></td>
<td>Recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really was.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect bias</a></td>
<td>A bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></td>
<td>A form of<span> </span><i>misattribution</i><span> </span>where imagination is mistaken for a memory.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_effect" title="Generation effect">Generation effect</a><span> </span>(Self-generation effect)</td>
<td>That self-generated information is remembered best. For instance, people are better able to recall memories of statements that they have generated than similar statements generated by others.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_effect" title="Google effect">Google effect</a></td>
<td>The tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search engines.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></td>
<td>The inclination to see past events as being more predictable than they actually were; also called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Humor_effect">Humor effect</span></td>
<td>That humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones, which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time to understand the humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the humor.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_truth_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Illusion of truth effect">Illusion of truth effect</a></td>
<td>That people are more likely to identify as true statements those they have previously heard (even if they cannot consciously remember having heard them), regardless of the actual validity of the statement. In other words, a person is more likely to believe a familiar statement than an unfamiliar one.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_correlation" title="Illusory correlation">Illusory correlation</a></td>
<td>Inaccurately remembering a relationship between two events.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertPsychBull_5-6" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-HilbertPsychBull-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_66-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-ReferenceB-66">[66]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Lag effect</td>
<td>The phenomenon whereby learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of time in a single session. See also<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">spacing effect</a>.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveling_and_sharpening" title="Leveling and sharpening">Leveling and sharpening</a></td>
<td>Memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time, often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling. Both biases may be reinforced over time, and by repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect" title="Levels-of-processing effect">Levels-of-processing effect</a></td>
<td>That different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels of effectiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="List-length_effect">List-length effect</span></td>
<td>A smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well. For example, consider a list of 30 items ("L30") and a list of 100 items ("L100"). An individual may remember 15 items from L30, or 50%, whereas the individual may remember 40 items from L100, or 40%. Although the percent of L30 items remembered (50%) is greater than the percent of L100 (40%), more L100 items (40) are remembered than L30 items (15).<sup id="cite_ref-memcog_111-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-memcog-111">[111]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (November 2013)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></td>
<td>Memory becoming less accurate because of interference from<span> </span><i>post-event information</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modality_effect" title="Modality effect">Modality effect</a></td>
<td>That memory recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were received via speech than when they were received through writing.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cue-dependent_forgetting" title="Cue-dependent forgetting">Mood-congruent memory bias</a></td>
<td>The improved recall of information congruent with one's current mood.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Next-in-line_effect">Next-in-line effect</span></td>
<td>People taking turns speaking in a group tend to have diminished recall for<span> </span><span class="clarify-content">the words of others</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Clarify">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="All words spoken by that other, or just those words spoken most recently? (March 2018)">clarify</span></a></i>]</sup><span> </span>who spoke immediately before them.<sup id="cite_ref-Weiten2007_113-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Weiten2007-113">[113]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part-list_cueing_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Part-list cueing effect">Part-list cueing effect</a></td>
<td>That being shown some items from a list and later retrieving one item causes it to become harder to retrieve the other items.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak-end_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak-end rule">Peak-end rule</a></td>
<td>That people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak (e.g., pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Persistence">Persistence</span></td>
<td>The unwanted recurrence of memories of a<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">traumatic event</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picture_superiority_effect" title="Picture superiority effect">Picture superiority effect</a></td>
<td>The notion that concepts that are learned by viewing pictures are more easily and frequently recalled than are concepts that are learned by viewing their written word form counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-shepard_115-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-shepard-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McBride_116-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-McBride-116">[116]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-defeyter_117-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-defeyter-117">[117]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-whitehouse_118-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-whitehouse-118">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ally_gold_119-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-ally_gold-119">[119]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-curran_120-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-curran-120">[120]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Positivity effect (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioemotional_selectivity_theory" title="Socioemotional selectivity theory">Socioemotional selectivity theory</a>)</td>
<td>That older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy effect">Primacy effect</a>,<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recency_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Recency effect">recency effect</a><span> </span>&<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_position_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial position effect">serial position effect</a></td>
<td>That items near the end of a sequence are the easiest to recall, followed by the items at the beginning of a sequence; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered.<sup id="cite_ref-serial_position_121-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-serial_position-121">[121]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Processing_difficulty_effect">Processing difficulty effect</span></td>
<td>That information that takes longer to read and is thought about more (processed with more difficulty) is more easily remembered.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reminiscence_bump" title="Reminiscence bump">Reminiscence bump</a></td>
<td>The recalling of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than personal events from other lifetime periods.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection" title="Rosy retrospection">Rosy retrospection</a></td>
<td>The remembering of the past as having been better than it really was.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Self-relevance_effect">Self-relevance effect</span></td>
<td>That memories relating to the self are better recalled than similar information relating to others.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Source confusion</a></td>
<td>Confusing episodic memories with other information, creating distorted memories.<sup id="cite_ref-Lieberman2011_124-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Lieberman2011-124">[124]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">Spacing effect</a></td>
<td>That information is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a long span of time rather than a short one.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight effect</a></td>
<td>The tendency to overestimate the amount that other people notice your appearance or behavior.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Stereotypical_bias">Stereotypical bias</span></td>
<td>Memory distorted towards stereotypes (e.g., racial or gender).</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Suffix_effect">Suffix effect</span></td>
<td>Diminishment of the recency effect because a sound item is appended to the list that the subject is<span> </span><i>not</i><span> </span>required to recall.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PittEdwards2003_126-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-PittEdwards2003-126">[126]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suggestibility#External" title="Suggestibility">Suggestibility</a></td>
<td>A form of misattribution where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachypsychia" title="Tachypsychia">Tachypsychia</a></td>
<td>When time perceived by the individual either lengthens, making events appear to slow down, or contracts.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescoping_effect" title="Telescoping effect">Telescoping effect</a></td>
<td>The tendency to displace recent events backward in time and remote events forward in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and remote events, more recent.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_effect" title="Testing effect">Testing effect</a></td>
<td>The fact that you more easily remember information you have read by rewriting it instead of rereading it.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a><span> </span>phenomenon</td>
<td>When a subject is able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of "blocking" where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-schacter_105-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-schacter-105">[105]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Travis_Syndrome">Travis Syndrome</span></td>
<td>Overestimating the significance of the present.<sup id="cite_ref-travis_129-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-travis-129">[129]</a></sup><span> </span>It is related to the enlightenment<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea_of_Progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Idea of Progress">Idea of Progress</a><span> </span>and<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">chronological snobbery</a><span> </span>with possibly an<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">appeal to novelty</a><span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical fallacy">logical fallacy</a><span> </span>being part of the bias.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><span id="Verbatim_effect">Verbatim effect</span></td>
<td>That the "gist" of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim wording.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup><span> </span>This is because memories are representations, not exact copies.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a></td>
<td>That an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeigarnik_effect" title="Zeigarnik effect">Zeigarnik effect</a></td>
<td>That uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table> Social biases[edit]
Most of t…tag:4freedoms.com,2018-12-03:3766518:Comment:1989182018-12-03T07:37:23.354ZAlan Lakehttp://4freedoms.com/profile/AlanLake
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_biases">Social biases</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Social biases">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Most of these biases are labeled as<span> …</span></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_biases">Social biases</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Social biases">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Most of these biases are labeled as<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">attributional biases</a>.</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr><th scope="col">Name</th>
<th scope="col">Description</th>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor-observer_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Actor-observer bias">Actor-observer bias</a></td>
<td>The tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (see also<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Fundamental attribution error</a>), and for explanations of one's own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality).</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority bias</a></td>
<td>The tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheerleader_effect" title="Cheerleader effect">Cheerleader effect</a></td>
<td>The tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensive_attribution_hypothesis" title="Defensive attribution hypothesis">Defensive attribution hypothesis</a></td>
<td>Attributing more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as personal or situational<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_(psychology)#Social_psychological_approaches" title="Similarity (psychology)">similarity</a>to the victim increases.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric bias</a></td>
<td>Occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would credit them with.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives bias</a></td>
<td>An exception to the<span> </span><i>fundamental attribution error</i>, when people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_consensus_effect" title="False consensus effect">False consensus effect</a></td>
<td>The tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_uniqueness_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="False uniqueness bias">False uniqueness bias</a></td>
<td>The tendency of people to see their projects and themselves as more singular than they actually are.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forer_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Forer effect">Forer effect</a><span> </span>(aka Barnum effect)</td>
<td>The tendency to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. For example,<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope" title="Horoscope">horoscopes</a>.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Fundamental attribution error</a></td>
<td>The tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior<sup id="cite_ref-TroPLoS_73-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-TroPLoS-73">[73]</a></sup><span> </span>(see also actor-observer bias,<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_attribution_error" title="Group attribution error">group attribution error</a>, positivity effect, and<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negativity_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Negativity effect">negativity effect</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Sutherland_2007_138–139_74-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Sutherland_2007_138%E2%80%93139-74">[74]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_attribution_error" title="Group attribution error">Group attribution error</a></td>
<td>The biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a></td>
<td>The tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one personality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype" title="Physical attractiveness stereotype">physical attractiveness stereotype</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_asymmetric_insight" title="Illusion of asymmetric insight">Illusion of asymmetric insight</a></td>
<td>People perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_external_agency" title="Illusion of external agency">Illusion of external agency</a></td>
<td>When people view self-generated preferences as instead being caused by insightful, effective and benevolent agents.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a></td>
<td>People overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority" title="Illusory superiority">Illusory superiority</a></td>
<td>Overestimating one's desirable qualities, and underestimating undesirable qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as "Lake Wobegon effect", "better-than-average effect", or "superiority bias".)<sup id="cite_ref-hoorens_100-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-hoorens-100">[100]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingroup_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroup bias">Ingroup bias</a></td>
<td>The tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-world_hypothesis" title="Just-world hypothesis">Just-world hypothesis</a></td>
<td>The tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_luck" title="Moral luck">Moral luck</a></td>
<td>The tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_cynicism" title="Naïve cynicism">Naïve cynicism</a></td>
<td>Expecting more<span> </span><i>egocentric bias</i><span> </span>in others than in oneself.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)" title="Naïve realism (psychology)">Naïve realism</a></td>
<td>The belief that we see reality as it really is – objectively and without bias; that the facts are plain for all to see; that rational people will agree with us; and that those who don't are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outgroup_homogeneity_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Outgroup homogeneity bias">Outgroup homogeneity bias</a></td>
<td>Individuals see members of their own group as being relatively more varied than members of other groups.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving bias</a></td>
<td>The tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests (see also<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group-serving_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Group-serving bias">group-serving bias</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_information_bias" title="Shared information bias">Shared information bias</a></td>
<td>Known as the tendency for group members to spend more time and energy discussing information that all members are already familiar with (i.e., shared information), and less time and energy discussing information that only some members are aware of (i.e., unshared information).<sup id="cite_ref-F_103-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-F-103">[103]</a></sup></td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_justification" title="System justification">System justification</a></td>
<td>The tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged, sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest. (See also status quo bias.)</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription bias</a></td>
<td>The tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior, and mood while viewing others as much more predictable.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_attribution_error" title="Ultimate attribution error">Ultimate attribution error</a></td>
<td>Similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of the individuals within the group.</td>
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<tr><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worse-than-average_effect" title="Worse-than-average effect">Worse-than-average effect</a></td>
<td>A tendency to believe ourselves to be worse than others at tasks which are difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Kruger,_J._1999_104-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Kruger,_J._1999-104">[104]</a></sup></td>
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</tbody>
</table>